For a history buff, Turkmenistan is what wish-lists are made of. Its historical sites comprise three of the greatest world cities of the past which served as the capitals of some of the region’s most powerful empires in the ancient and medieval world, namely, the Great Seljuks, Khwarezmshahs, and Parthians.

All three of these cities are UNESCO World Heritage Sites today: Merv in the south-east, Konye Urgench in the north, and Old Nisa near the capital Ashgabat.

Welcome to my travel guide on these legendary metropolises’ fantastic histories and breathtaking monuments. Places very few visit, in one of our world’s Least Visited Countries. ❤

MERV: ‘QUEEN OF THE WORLD’ AND CAPITAL OF THE GREAT SELJUKS

Often described as ‘the wandering city,’ Merv is Turkmenistan’s grandest UNESCO World Heritage Site, both in scale and age: 1,236 hectares [including the buffer zone] and 4,500 years. Listed in 1999, it is also the oldest and best-preserved oasis city along the Silk Road in Central Asia.

When the Murgab River changed course over the centuries, moving from east to west, new cities were built in Merv next to previous abandoned ones. The result is a unique mapping of time through a series of walled cities which were not built over or reconstructed, but stand next to each other, offering a timeline of built heritage across five millennia.

Within the ‘State Historical and Cultural Park “Ancient Merv”‘, as it is officially known, are remnants of Bronze Age centres including the Aryan and Zoroastrian city of Gonur Depe [25th to 12th Century BC], the historic adjacent walled cities of Erk Kala, Gyaur Kala and Soltan Kala [6th Century BC to 12th Century AD], and the 15th Century Timurid remains of Abdullah Khan Kala on the other side of the park.

This shard of pottery in my hands is 4,500 years old.

Bronze Age Gonur Depe archaeological site is replete with pottery and human remains. Gonur Depe means Grey Hill.

Gonur Depe, capital of Ancient Margiana, is a two-hour drive from Historic Merv accessed by a dirt road through the Karakum Desert. The Bronze Age site was discovered by Soviet archaeologist Viktor Sarianidi in 1972 and comprises of a palace [partly reconstructed], necropolis decorated with pipal leaves, and large Soma-spattered pits used for fire-worship. Thousands of pottery shards and scores of human bones are still scattered across the ruins. Foundation pits contain ancient chariots and skeletons of camels, horses, and dogs.

After spending a lifetime excavating the site, Sarianidi concluded Zoroastrianism was born in Gonur Depe as a breakaway religion from the fire-worshipping Aryans who lived here. Once the Murgab River changed course, the Aryans moved east towards the Indus River and the city was abandoned completely.

Historic Merv itself is made of three adjoining walled cities. Erk Kala is the oldest and dates back to the 6th Century BC. Gyaur Kala, next to it, was built by the Seleucids to accommodate a burgeoning population and was in use from the 3rd Century BC to 9th Century AD. Soltan Kala, the largest of the three, was established by the Arab Caliphate rulers in the 9th Century and served first as their capital, and after them, as the capital of the Seljuk Empire. After building their new city, the Arab Caliphate rulers named the old city Gyaur meaning ‘infidel’ in reference to the Buddhists, Zoroastrians, and Christians who lived in it, and whose places of worship can still be seen.

It was under the rule of the Seljuks [11th to 12th Century AD] that Merv shone brightest, and under the rule of the last Seljuk ruler, Sultan Ahmad Sanjar [r. 1118 – 1157], that it reached its zenith stretching over Central Asia, present-day Iran, Iraq, and Turkey. This was an incomparable time for Merv.

Described as ‘Queen of the World,’ the city rose to become a formidable political, trading, and cultural centre during Sanjar’s reign, with some of the brightest minds ever to live calling Merv their home. One such was Omar Khayyam, the renowned poet, astronomer, and mathematician who wrote the Rubaiyat, as well as his mathematical tables and calendar right here.

But these millennia of history, heritage, and culture were no match to the savagery of the Mongols. In 1221, Tolui Khan, the fourth son of Genghis Khan, razed Merv to the ground, killing 95 percent of its population. The city was never to be rebuilt again.

Greater Kyz Kala, a pre-Islamic Koshk [mansion of the elite].

Lesser Kyz Kala and a view of Greater Kyz Kala from one of its ‘windows.’

Timurid tile-work at the Askhab Mausoleums.

Erk Kala, the oldest walled city in Merv [6th Century BC].

Top: The Kepderihana [treasury or library or pigeon shelter] in Shahriyar Ark inside Soltan Kala; Above right: Closeup of a 5th Century terracotta vase unearthed in Merv with human figures and red pipal leaf pattern, National Museum of Turkmenistan, Ashgabat.

Highlights of Merv’s built heritage from across the ages include the various city walls, Greater and Lesser Kyz Kala, a pair of fantastical pre-Islamic ribbed Koshks [mansions of the elite], four ice-houses, the palace complex Shahriyar Ark inside Soltan Kala with its military architecture, and the elegant Mausoleum of Soltan Sanjar which was originally part of a large religious complex.

Major spiritual centres in Merv which have survived time and Tolui Khan’s desecration are the Askhab Mausoleums with 15th Century Timurid finery over the graves of the 7th Century ‘standard-bearers’ of the Prophet Muhammad, and the Mausoleum of Yusuf Hamadani, a 12th Century Sufi saint of the Naqshbandi Order.

Seljuk Sultan Ahmad Sanjar’s Mausoleum in the heart of Soltan Kala, and a group of Turkmen pilgrims at the tomb. It is common practice for Muslim pilgrims to include the mausoleums of dead rulers in their pilgrimages.

Travel tips:

• Do visit either the National Museum of Turkmenistan in Ashgabat or the Local History Museum of Mary Province in Merv before you visit the site.
• Merv is big. It is recommended you stay overnight [Hotel Margush is a popular choice] and have your own transport.
• Stock up on samsas and fitcis from the highway eateries. There is no food or water available inside the UNESCO World Heritage Site.
• Explore Merv with a guide. I had Mohamed [WhatsApp: +993 6433 1981], a senior researcher at Merv’s Local History Museum as my guide, and Kyamran [WhatsApp: +993 6329 0754] as my driver. They were both fabulous.

KONYE URGENCH: THE GLORIOUS PROLOGUE TO UZBEKISTAN’S GLORY

Steeped in evocative charm reminiscent of neighbouring Uzbekistan is Konye Urgench, listed in 2005.

Once the capital of the mighty Khwarezmshah Empire and an important city in the Kipchat Khanate, this site is merely 20 kilometres from Turkmenistan’s northern border, and is generously endowed with some of Central Asia’s most splendid monuments.

Its beginnings were, however, humble—a small area sliced by the Amu Dariya in the shadows of the mighty Seljuks who ruled from Merv. But it was not long before it came into its own. When it did, it surpassed all others to become one of the foremost Islamic cities in the region, earning it the monikers ‘Heart of Islam’ and the ‘Capital of 1,000 Wise Men.’

This success was partly due to its strategic location across two caravan routes. And partly because of the people who were at its helm: Sultan Tekesh [r. 1172 – 1200] whose rule led the Khwarezmshah Empire to its acme. And in an indirect way Seyit Ahmet, a saint who Islamised the Golden Horde or Kipchat Khanate inherited by Batu Khan, Genghis Khan’s grandson.

Whilst most of Central Asia withered after Genghis Khan’s conquests in 1221, Konye Urgench led by its now Islamised Mongol rulers, rose like a phoenix. It especially shone under the reign of its early-14th Century Governor Kutlug Timur, son-in-law of Uzbek Khan, leader of the Golden Horde.

The city was to be sacked once more though—this time for good, by Tamerlane in 1388—and, thereafter, abandoned. A ‘new’ Urgench [in present-day Uzbekistan] became the regional capital in the 17th Century.

Fragments of Konye Urgench’s history are clustered into two groups: Southern Monuments and Central Monuments, and are accessible by a paved path.

Turabeg Khanum Mausoleum [early-14th Century].

Konye Urgench’s star attractions are in the Southern Monuments ensemble, with the magnificent early-14th Century Turabeg Khanum Mausoleum, in front of the ticket office, its showstopper. Turabeg was Uzbek Khan’s daughter, and Kutlug Timur’s wife.

In keeping with the city’s role as a centre for science and learning, the mausoleum’s exquisite mosaic ceiling is based on astronomical principles. 365 floral motifs representing 365 days are hemmed in by 24 arches to signify 24 hours, and further surrounded by 12 bigger arches indicating 12 months. Other design elements to look out for are the web of muqarnas in the foyer, and the glistening blue tile-work on the outside back walls.

Kutlug Timur Minaret [12th Century; renovated in the 14th Century].

Across the road is the 60-metre-high Kutlug Timur Minaret decorated with 18 bands of design motifs and 3 bands of Kufic inscriptions mentioning Kutlug’s name. The minaret, 12 metres wide at its base peters to 2 metres at the top. It was originally accessed by a doorway 7 metres above ground through an attached mosque [now long gone]. Current historians are of the opinion Kutlug only renovated the minaret and it actually predates the Minaret of Jam in Afghanistan.

Stump of Ma’mun II’s Minaret [early-11th Century] with Kutlug Timur Minaret, Tekesh Mausoleum, and Il Arslan Mausoleum in the background.

Also in the vicinity are the Seyit Ahmet Mausoleum, a 19th Century double-domed structure over the grave of a saint who died in 1308, but not before Islamising the new Mongol rulers; a monumental arch belonging to a caravanserai; stump of Ma’mun II’s Minaret; and Kyrk Molla [40 Mullahs] Hill. The last, a necropolis popular for fertility pilgrimage rituals, is believed by archaeologists to be the site of a 5th Century city. Popular legend, meanwhile, claims it is the fabled Academy of Ma’mun which miraculously turned upside down when the Mongols invaded. The books, hence saved, still lie underground.

Left: Il Arslan Mausoleum [12th Century]; Right: Kutlug Timur Minaret.

Further down the path are the mausoleums of the father-son rulers Il Arslan and Sultan Tekesh. They are representative of the early-Uzbek architectural style synonymous with Konye Urgench, and the transformation of the flat-sided conical cupola [in the father’s tomb] to the smooth cupola [in the son’s tomb].

Top: Pilgrims inside the Nejameddin Kubra Mausoleum; Right: Tile-work on the facade of Nejameddin Kubra Mausoleum [14th Century].

Closing the historical circuit are the Central Monuments, a group of three mausoleums. Of these, the Mausoleum of Sufi saint Nejameddin Kubra, also known as 360 Pirden Sowgat, is an essential part of Sufi pilgrimage. Born in Khiva in 1145, he was the founder of the Kubravid School, and was beheaded by the Mongols in 1221. His grave consists of two parts, one for his body and one for his head. The other two mausoleums belong to Sultan Ali, a local governor, and Piryarvali, a disciple of Kubra.

Travel tips:

• Do check out the museum opposite the Central Monuments for an overview of Konye Urgench and Turkmen culture.
• You will need to cover your head in Nejameddin Kubra’s Mausoleum.

OLD NISA: CAPITAL OF THE MIGHTY PARTHIANS

Old Nisa, on the outskirts of Ashgabat, is the smallest of Turkmenistan’s UNESCO World Heritage Sites and was listed in 2007.

At first glance, it can be a bit disappointing. The first capital of ancient Parthia does not have the grandeur of Merv, or the beauty of Konye Urgench. Its claim to fame, instead, has more to do with the striking artefacts found amidst the excavated ruins and the role the city played in world affairs 2,200 years ago. These artefacts are on display at the National Museum of Turkmenistan in Ashgabat, and it is recommended one first visits the museum, and then the ruins for a better appreciation of the site.

The Parthians were an Iranian civilization renowned for defeating the Seleucids, reestablishing Persian rule in the region, challenging the Romans, and controlling a large tract of the Silk Road. At its high point, the empire spread from the Indus River in the East to the Euphrates River in the West. Very little remains of this ancient empire, except for Old Nisa and the stories of two of its most legendary rulers: the empire’s founder Arsaces I [r. 250 – 211 BC], and Mithridates I the Great [r. 165 –132 BC] who transformed the small kingdom into a powerful empire with his conquests.

Sandwiched between the Kopet-Dag Mountains and Karakum Desert, Old Nisa is connected to both these men. Arsaces I founded the city, using it as a royal residence; a hundred years later the city was fortified by Mithridates the Great. But it was a short-lived magnificence. Around the 1st Century BC, Old Nisa was destroyed by an earthquake and abandoned.

Even though only 30 percent of the site has been excavated so far, countless treasures and enough ruins have been unearthed for historians to be able to reconstruct two key royal rooms, namely, the Columned Hall and Temple. Zoroastrian in principle and Hellenistic in design, they had soaring adjoining columns and were encircled with statues of effigies high up in niches.

Parthian artefacts excavated from Old Nisa at the National Museum of Turkmenistan in Ashgabat.

Notable amongst the excavated artefacts are multiple intricately carved ivory drinking vessels called rhytons which were used in ceremonial rituals. Rhytons were common throughout the Mediterranean back then. What sets the Parthian rhytons apart is that they are the only ones made of ivory, suggesting trade links with far away India.

There are abundant Hellenistic influences to be found as well, such as a 2-centimetre-high statuette of Athena, a Cupid with raised arms, and an effigy of Rhodogune, daughter of Mithridates I, on the lines of Venus.

Old Nisa archaeological site.

Ruins and a graphic reconstruction of the Columned Hall in Old Nisa by V.N. Pilipko.

Only 30 percent of Old Nisa has been excavated so far. Under these mounds lie the rest of the city, and who knows what treasures!

Travel tips:

• Take a guided tour at the National Museum of Turkmenistan in Ashgabat first to put things in context.
• Climb up the platform near the site entrance to get sweeping views of Old Nisa.

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I hope you found the above travel guide useful and it helps you in making the most of your travels to Turkmenistan. 🙂

This blog post is part of a series from my travels to Turkmenistan for 12 days in October 2023. To read more posts in my Turkmenistan series, please click here.